February 2008 No. 34 Copyright © 2008 AICE
Rush to Judgment: Teacher Evaluation in Public Education T he troubled state of teacher evaluation is a glaring and largely neglected problem in public education, an enterprise that spends $400 billion annually on salaries and benefits. Because teacher evaluation is at the heart of the educational enterprise —the quality of teaching in the nation’s classrooms—it has the potential to be a powerful lever of teacher and school improvement. But that potential is being squandered throughout public education today. A host of factors—a lack of accountability for school performance, staffing practices that strip school systems of incentives to take teacher evaluation seriously, union ambivalence, and public education’s practice of using teacher credentials as a proxy for teacher quality—have resulted in teacher evaluation systems throughout public education that are superficial, capricious, and often don’t even directly address the quality of instruction, much less measure students’ learning. In this Education Sector report, Co-founder and Co-director Thomas Toch and Robert Rothman of the Annenberg Institute for School Reform examine the causes and consequences of the crisis in teacher evaluation, as well as its implications for the current national debate about performance pay for teachers. And the report examines a number of national, state, and local evaluation systems that point to a way out of the evaluation morass. Full report: http://ce.edexcellence.net/dsp_emailhandler.cfm?eid=41327&uid=42295 Year Two Report Finds Merit Pay Has Positive Effects on Students Study of Little Rock schools in program reveals higher test scores for students, mixed attitudes from teachers. An evaluation of a teacher pay-for-performance program in Little Rock finds that it produces significant gains in student performance on standardized tests. The Achievement Challenge Pilot Project (ACPP) at five elementary schools in Little Rock elementary schools offered teachers and staff substantial bonuses that vary depending on the level of increases in student achievement in each teacher’s classroom. According to researchers in the UA department of education reform, students in schools where the program operated in 2006-2007 enjoyed greater learning gains than their comparable peers did in three subject areas on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. Specifically, students in the merit pay schools improved by nearly seven percentile points in math, by nine percentile points in language, and by six percentile points in reading. In the ACPP merit pay program, teachers could earn a bonus worth as much as $11,000. In 2005-2006, teachers and staff at Meadowcliff were awarded bonuses totaling $200,926, while those at Wakefield received $228,300 in performance bonuses. For the 2006-2007 school year, the program was expanded to include three more elementary schools: Geyer Springs, Mabelvale and Romine. The program began at Meadowcliff in 2004-2005, and Wakefield was added in 2005-2006. Also according to the UA researchers, surveys of teachers at participating and comparison schools found that attitudes were mixed about the program’s effects. The ACPP teachers, in general, did not indicate being more innovative or working harder, despite the fact that these are two oft-cited potential benefits of merit pay plans. However, teachers in schools that participated for multiple years in the ACPP reported being more satisfied with their salaries than their peers in first-year ACPP schools, and comparable nonparticipating schools. With regard to the frequently cited potential disadvantages of merit pay programs, the ACPP teachers did not report divisive competition, suffering from a negative work environment, or shying away from working with low-performing students. Teachers in the three schools implementing merit pay for the first time in 2006-2007 did highlight some problems with the implementation of the program, which resulted in their discontent and decreased program support. In general, however, ACPP teachers reported being more effective teachers than their comparable peers in non-ACPP schools. “Our two years of analysis of test data in ACPP schools in Little Rock reveal consistent findings: students of teachers who are eligible for performance bonuses enjoy academic benefits. Further, many of the criticisms of merit pay programs simply have not proven true in Little Rock,” Ritter said. The study was supervised by Ritter, director of the Office for Education Policy in the department of education reform. Jay P. Greene, who holds the endowed chair in education reform, along with graduate students and researchers in the department, also participated in the evaluation. The research team has been examining the program over the past two years, with the year two study incorporating a larger sample size of students and teachers to determine whether the initial benefits, found in the first evaluation, persist. The full report is available at http://www.uark.edu/ua/der/Research/ Improving Teaching Through Pay for Contribution by the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices The amount of pay change for individuals must be significant enough to impact who becomes a teacher, who stays in the profession, and what teachers do in their classrooms. What “significant” means will vary by context, but small differentials of 5 percent or less of teacher pay are unlikely to be worth the trouble of implementing. Instead, differential pay opportunities of 15 percent or more may be needed to achieve the positive learning results that governors are seeking. The effect on state teacher pay budgets will depend largely on two factors: how bold leaders are in adopting numerous forms of pay for contribution and how much is shifted from pay that does not reward contribution to learning. The more policymakers are willing to increase or shift pay dollars into forms of pay for contribution, the more impact on student learning the changes will have. Governors can enact these initiatives at the state level or encourage and enable schools and school districts to act. Eliminating state policy barriers to all forms of pay for contribution and providing grants to encourage bold and responsible district experimentation are key enabling activities. Initiatives to Make Pay for Contribution Effective Whatever roles that governors choose to play in teacher pay reform, they should also advocate initiatives that will help make pay for contribution effective, including the following: Instituting valid systems that track the contributions of individual teachers to student learning gains. Ongoing improvement of student testing to measure student learning progress accurately is an important complement to pay reform. Without quality measures of learning, teachers will doubt the fairness of pay reforms based on assessment results. Measuring student progress also is critical to assessing the true value and impact of reforms, including pay changes. Furthermore, paying teachers for student progress reduces the incentive for teachers to avoid teaching challenging children with lower starting achievement levels. Initiating or participating in studies of the “soft attributes” or “deeper competencies” of effective teachers. Such studies can help build a well-grounded knowledge base about the habitual behaviors, thinking skills, and motivations of teachers who measurably contribute the most to student learning. Addressing common implementation challenges. These include training principals to play their part in implementing teacher pay changes, organizing the pay design process for staff buy-in, and building teacher pay budgets so they are sustainable when higher teacher performance demands larger expenditures for teacher compensation. Evaluating how new pay designs contribute to student learning. Rigorous ongoing evaluation of new models will enable governors and education leaders to evolve compensation design as learning goals, measurement capabilities, and financial resources change. Full report: http://www.nga.org/Files/pdf/0711IMPROVINGTEACHING.PDF THE LEADERSHIP LIMBO New Fordham report on teacher labor agreements in America's fifty largest districts In the era of No Child Left Behind, principals are increasingly held accountable for student performance. But are teacher labor agreements giving them enough flexibility to manage effectively? A new report from the Thomas B. Fordham Institute, The Leadership Limbo: Teacher Labor Agreements in America's Fifty Largest School Districts, attempts to answer this question and others. The main findings: · Thirty, or more than half, of the 50 districts have labor agreements that are ambiguous. The collective bargaining agreements and the formal board policies in these districts appear to grant leaders substantial leeway to manage assertively, should they so choose. · Fifteen of the 50 districts are home to Restrictive or Highly Restrictive labor agreements. Nearly 10 percent of the nation's African-American K-12 students population attend school in the 15 lowest-scoring districts--making these contracts major barriers to more equal educational opportunity. · Districts with high concentrations of poor and minority students tend to have more restrictive contracts than other districts--another alarming indication of inequity along racial and class lines. · The labor agreements of the nation's 50 largest districts are particularly restrictive when it comes to work rules. · Most of these agreements are also quite restrictive when it comes to rewarding teachers for service in hard-to-staff subject areas such as math and science, with 31 actually prohibiting districts from doing so. · Five of the fifty districts in the analysis can claim relatively "flexible" teacher labor agreements that explicitly give leaders broad authority to manage their schools effectively. The five are Guilford County, North Carolina; Austin, Dallas, and Northside, Texas; and Fairfax County, Virginia. Full report: http://ce.edexcellence.net/dsp_emailhandler.cfm?eid=43663&uid=42295 Systemwide Reform: Students Show Marked Improvement The Community Training and Assistance Center ("CTAC") released a report in 2006 that demonstrates significant improvement in student learning is possible when systemwide reform is the focus. The report details an unusually high level of education progress and highlights the successes gained by the largest school district in Delaware, Christina School District, after a two-year intensive effort to improve education in their public schools. Christina undertook system-wide reforms to address a persistent pattern of underachievement and to tighten the achievement gap among groups of students within the district. More than 3,900 parents were active in school planning and more than 2,900 annually assessed the accountability and effectiveness of the reform. Primary findings include: · S tudent achievement increased as evidenced on three major independent assessments (Delaware Student Testing Program, SAT 9/10 and Northwest Evaluation Association’s MAP);  · For the first time in this district, student achievement among African American and Hispanic students significantly improved; · The teachers and administrators at the Standard Bearer Schools (CTAC developed model for planning that focuses on addressing the root causes of student achievement) indicated, to a statistically significant extent, improvements in conditions related to teaching and learning, organizational support and alignment, school planning and human resource practices; and · District capacities in data, research, instructional support, organizational development, professional development, fundraising and corporate involvement were strengthened markedly. "The results of this reform demonstrate that meaningful improvements are achievable when communities come together to implement a comprehensive approach to improve student learning," said William Slotnik, Executive Director of CTAC. This initiative began with an assessment of district readiness and capacity; broad-based implementation of the reform plan, New Directions in Christina, started in the 2004-2005 school year. The comprehensive approach was designed to build the capacity of the district to make and sustain improvements in student achievement, strategic management and policy, leadership, human resource development and management and stakeholder satisfaction and ownership. The CTAC report details changes in the way the district and schools aligned instruction with standards, assessed students, managed data, conducted school planning and involved stakeholders, particularly parents, in school improvement. Full report: http://www.ctacusa.com/ChristinaReport06.pdf Friends' school achievement influences high school girls' interest in math Girls in high school take as many math courses as boys, influenced by close friends and peers who are doing well in school. More than boys, girls look to their close friends when they make important decisions, such as whether to take math and what math classes to take, confirming how significant peers are during adolescence. Those are the findings of a new study conducted by researchers at the University of Texas at Austin, the University of Pennsylvania, and Michigan State University. The study is published in the January/February 2008 issue of the journal Child Development. Researchers looked at 6,547 high-school girls and boys who had a variety of relationships with peers and tracked the math courses they took. All of the students had taken part in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health from 1995 to 2001. The researchers found that, contrary to popular opinion but in line with recent government findings, girls have caught up with boys in terms of the math courses they take in high school. One reason this is so, they found, is the kinds of friends and peers they have in high school. All teens—girls as well as boys—with close friends and other peers who made good grades took more higher-level math than other teens, according to the study. But the connection between these relationships and the math classes was stronger for girls than for boys. In the end, social factors meant more for girls than for boys in decisions about math coursework, especially when enrollment in math classes was optional and when girls were doing well in school. “These findings stress the need to turn attention away from documenting gender differences in math course-taking in high school and toward looking at the reasons why girls and boys take different paths to the same outcomes,” according to Robert Crosnoe, associate professor of sociology at the University of Texas at Austin and the study’s lead author. “In other words, just because girls and boys might have the same academic standing at the end of high school does not mean that they got there in the same way.” More Math Adds Up to Better Jobs, Success in College By West Virginia Superintendent of Schools Steven L. Paine West Virginia’s high school students will have to work a little harder beginning this fall to earn their diplomas. Our state has adopted tougher graduation requirements that place our state in the enviable position of being an educational leader. High school students will be required to earn 24 credits, including four units of English, social studies and math; three of science; one each of physical education, health and the arts; and two electives. The remaining credits are determined by the student’s career plans. It also is recommended that students take at least one course in technology applications, complete an online learning experience and a senior project.   Research shows a remarkable correlation between the courses high school students take and their success after graduation. Students who take challenging courses score higher on college entrance exams, have greater success in college, fare better in the work place and earn more money whether or not they attend college.   Still, a few skeptics have voiced concerns that raising standards will force some students to leave school. However, research shows little truth in the claim. Students do not drop out of school because they are asked to work harder. A National Governors Association survey of more than 100,000 students ages 16 to 18, found that only 13 percent of students who left school or were planning to leave said the reason was the work was too hard. The most frequent reason cited for dropping out was that they weren’t learning anything. A report by the Gates Foundation also dispels the notion that students who drop out of school are failing. Six out of 10 surveyed had a C average or better when they quit. A report by Horatio Alger had similar findings. Nearly nine in 10 students said they would work harder if their high school expected more of them. Across the nation, the shift from an industrialized society to the age of information has changed the math that we need to learn to be successful in our jobs and in life. More than 75 percent of all jobs now require proficiency in fundamental algebraic concepts, either as a prerequisite for advanced training, or as part of a licensure program, according to the National Research Council. And more than two-thirds of all new jobs require some form of postsecondary education, with 40 of the 50 fastest-growing occupations requiring at least some education beyond high school. For First Time, Phonics Fails to Make Annual “Hot” Literacy Topic List Phonics has failed to make the annual list of hot topics in literacy for the first time in 12 years. The “What’s Hot, What’s Not” survey has been a staple for literacy trend watchers since Jack Cassidy and his wife Drew, both with Texas A & M-Corpus Christi, began polling literacy leaders about what issues were getting attention (hot and very hot), which were not (cold, very cold) and which issues warrant more attention from reading professionals (should be hot). Phonics’ arrival on the “not hot” list may surprise many teachers and policymakers who recognize it as one of the five so-called pillars of reading instruction. Explaining its shifting status, Jack and Drew Cassidy point out that many literacy leaders have expressed concern that phonics, phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension could be viewed as equally important. “Comprehension and vocabulary instruction are more important than the other three,” Cassidy notes. Debate over phonics instruction fueled the “reading wars” in the 1980’s, leading one unnamed respondent to comment that phonics’ move to the “not hot” list signals that “it is time to move on.” None of the topics on the list rated an “extremely hot” designation the way adolescent literacy did in 2007. It stays on the list as “very hot,” along with early intervention, English-language learners, fluency, high-stakes assessment, informational/nonfiction texts, literacy/reading coaches, response to intervention, and scientifically-based reading research and instruction. For more information about the 2008 “What’s Hot, What’s Not” survey, visit Reading Today, published by the International Reading Association, at http://www.reading.org. As graduation rates go down, school ratings go up New study shows the negative implications of No Child Left Behind A new study by researchers at Rice University and the University of Texas-Austin finds that Texas' public school accountability system, the model for the national No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), directly contributes to lower graduation rates. Each year Texas public high schools lose at least 135,000 youth prior to graduation -- a disproportionate number of whom are African-American, Latino and English-as-a-second-language (ESL) students. By analyzing data from more than 271,000 students, the study found that 60 percent of African-American students, 75 percent of Latino students and 80 percent of ESL students did not graduate within five years. The researchers found an overall graduation rate of only 33 percent. "High-stakes, test-based accountability doesn't lead to school improvement or equitable educational possibilities," said Linda McSpadden McNeil, director of the Center for Education at Rice University. "It leads to avoidable losses of students. Inherently the system creates a dilemma for principals: comply or educate. Unfortunately we found that compliance means losing students." The study shows as schools came under the accountability system, which uses student test scores to rate schools and reward or discipline principals, massive numbers of students left the school system. The exit of low-achieving students created the appearance of rising test scores and of a narrowing of the achievement gap between white and minority students, thus increasing the schools' ratings. This study has serious implications for the nation's schools under the NCLB law. It finds that the higher the stakes and the longer such an accountability system governs schools, the more school personnel view students not as children to educate but as potential liabilities or assets for their school's performance indicators, their own careers or their school's funding. The study shows a strong relationship between the increasing number of dropouts and school's rising accountability ratings, finding that: · Losses of low-achieving students help raise school ratings under the accountability system. · The accountability system allows principals to hold back students who are deemed at risk of reducing the school's scores; many students retained this way end up dropping out. · The test scores grouped by race single out the low-achieving students in these subgroups as potential liabilities to the school ratings, increasing incentives for school administrators to allow those students to quietly exit the system. · The accountability system's zero tolerance rules for attendance and behavior, which put youth into the court system for minor offenses and absences, alienate students and increase the likelihood they will drop out. The discrepancy between the official dropout rates, in the 2 to 3 percent range, and the actual rates can be attributed to the state's method of counting, which does not include students who drop out of school for reasons such as pregnancy or incarceration or declare intent to take the GED sometime in the future. The study analyzes student-level data of 271,000 students in one of Texas' large urban districts over a seven-year period. It also includes analysis of the policy and its implementation, extensive observations in high schools in that district and interviews with students, teachers, administrators and students who left school without graduating. The study has been published in the peer-reviewed policy journal "Educational Policy Analysis Archives" and is the first research to track the impact of high-stakes accountability on students, employing individual student-level data over a multi-year period. The study can be viewed at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v16n3/. Advanced Placement Results: A Greater Percentage of the Nation's Students Succeed on AP® Exams, Predictors of Success in College Report Points to the Need for Better Preparation in Earlier Grades More than 15 percent of the public high school class of 2007 achieved at least one AP® Exam grade of 3 or higher^1—the score that is predictive of college success. This achievement represents a significant and consistent improvement since the class of 2002 when less than 12 percent of public school graduates attained this goal. Out of all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia, Vermont captured the largest increase in the percentage of high school graduates who scored a 3 or higher on an AP Exam. In its fourth annual "AP Report to the Nation," the College Board (the not-for-profit membership association that owns and administers the AP Program), focuses on educators' quantifiable successes in helping a wider segment of the nation's students gain access to and achieve success in college-level work. Of the estimated 2.8 million students who graduated from U.S. public schools in 2007, almost 426,000 (15.2 percent) earned an AP Exam grade of at least a 3 on one or more AP Exams during their high school tenure, the report documents. This is up from 14.7 percent in 2006 and 11.7 percent in 2002. Earning a 3 or higher on an AP Exam is one of "the very best predictors of college performance,"^2 with AP students earning higher college grades and graduating from college at higher rates than otherwise similar peers in control groups, according to recent reports from researchers at the University of California at Berkeley,^3 the National Center for Educational Accountability,^4 and the University of Texas at Austin.^5,6 New York, Maryland, Virginia, Florida, Massachusetts and Connecticut all saw more than 20 percent of their students graduate from high school having earned an AP Exam grade of 3 or higher. AP achievements for each state's class of 2002, class of 2006 and class of 2007 are detailed in the report. (See "The 4th Annual AP Report to the Nation," Table 1, page 5.) Though 75 percent of U.S. high school graduates enter college,^7 dropout rates and the fact that about half of all college freshmen are taking at least one remedial course indicate that secondary schools must dedicate themselves to more than college admission,^8 the report asserts. The report notes that an equity and excellence gap appears whenever the percentage of traditionally underserved students—such as African-American, Hispanic/Latino, or American Indian students—who are among those achieving access to and succeeding on AP Exams is less than the percentage of underserved students in the entire graduating class. This means that despite increased efforts to provide underserved students with access to AP courses, AP Exam results indicate that often these students are not receiving adequate preparation for the intensity of the college-level work. Though several states have successfully closed the equity and excellence gap for Hispanic/Latino students, no state with large numbers of African-American or American Indian students has closed the gap, says the report. State-based Initiatives The report highlights states' efforts to implement programs that support academic achievement for all students. States that have experienced success are highlighted; these include Florida, which has expanded AP participation and performance among African-American and Hispanic/Latino students with initiatives set forth in the College Board Florida Partnership for Minority and Underrepresented Student Achievement; Illinois, which, through its College and Career Success for All Students Program, offers competitive grants to school districts emphasizing training for AP teachers, counselors and principals; and Mississippi, which, in addition to seeing an increase in the percentage of African-American students scoring a 3 or higher since the class of 2002, also provides scholarships for teachers to attend colleges and universities during the summer to receive AP teacher training. State Reports: http://professionals.collegeboard.com/data-reports-research/ap/nation Full report: http://professionals.collegeboard.com/profdownload/ap-report-to-the-nation-2008.pdf ^1 Each AP Exam is scored using a five-point scale: 5—Extremely well qualified; 4—Well qualified; 3—Qualified; 2—Possibly qualified; 1—No recommendation. ^2 Saul Geiser and Veronica Santelices, "The Role of Advanced Placement and Honors Courses in College Admissions"(2004), Center for Studies in Higher Education, University of California: Berkeley. ^3 Ibid. ^4 Chrys Dougherty, Lynn Mellor, and Shuling Jian, "The Relationship Between Advanced Placement and College Graduation" (2005), National Center for Educational Accountability. ^5 In press. Leslie Keng and Barbara G. Dodd. "An Investigation of College Performance of AP and Non-AP Student Groups." ^6 In press. Linda Hargrove, Donn Godin, and Barbara Dodd. "College Outcomes Comparisons by AP and Non-AP High School Experiences." ^7 Kati Haycock "Closing the Achievement Gap" Educational Leadership (2001), Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. ^8 "Preparing Students for Success in College," Policy Matters (2005), American Association of State Colleges and Universities. ^9 "Paying Double: Inadequate High School and Community College Remediation." Alliance for Excellent Education (August 2006). Survey Results Show 'Nation Deceived' Report Makes Major Impact on Gifted Education Three years after the University of Iowa's Connie Belin & Jacqueline N. Blank International Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development published "A Nation Deceived: How Schools Hold Back America's Brightest Students," an online research survey shows that the report has had a major impact on the state of gifted education in the United States. Published in 2004, the two-volume report was made available at no charge to schools, parents and the media across the country. A Web site dedicated to the report's findings can also be viewed at http://www.nationdeceived.org, where a PDF version of the report may be downloaded. Nicholas Colangelo, Belin-Blank Center director and the report's lead author, said that 99 percent of those surveyed believed the report will have a positive influence on gifted education in the long-run. He added that 85 percent of those surveyed indicated the report has had a positive impact on their attitudes toward acceleration, and 77 percent said that the report has had a positive impact on the field of gifted education. Fifty-one percent of those responding believe that the report has had a positive impact on the field of education in general, and 25 percent believe that the report has had a positive impact on training provided in colleges of education. Fourteen percent of respondents said they believe that acceleration policies have been written or revised as a result of "A Nation Deceived." "We thought that with the Internet and the speed of communications, that three years was a reasonable amount of time to assess the impact," Colangelo said. "We've been very pleased at how this report has moved the subjects of gifted education and acceleration into the mainstream and helped change, not only attitudes, but policies in some cases. People realize that acceleration has to be seen as a legitimate and researched intervention and can no longer dismiss it based on their own biases." The online survey, designed to assess the impact of the report three years later, was released internationally Sept. 1 through Dec. 31, 2007. The research survey included 19 questions, one open-ended field for comments, and 14 categories for respondents. Over 2,400 people made comments. Colangelo said he was pleased with the results, noting that 3,868 respondents from the United States completed the survey, including people from all 50 states, as well as 401 international respondents, for a total of 4,269. Most of the people who completed the survey were parents of gifted children and educators, Colangelo said. Colangelo said this was not a random, scientific survey. Rather, it was sent to gifted education listservs, to general education listservs, to colleges, and it was also open to the general public. "It's a large sample of people who were willing to share their thoughts about gifted education and acceleration," Colangelo said. To assess the impact of the study, Colangelo said the following questions were asked: --How well known is the report? --Has it increased knowledge about acceleration? --Has it changed attitudes about acceleration? --Has it changed practices in schools? --Has it influenced policies at district and state levels? The report received coverage in national media outlets, including TIME magazine, Education Weekly, New York Times, The Washington Post, the Boston Globe and hundreds of other venues. "This received considerable media exposure," Colangelo said. "It was the first time, to my knowledge, that gifted education came into the popular press. That was a big breakthrough for the field of gifted education because it's been very difficult for the topic of gifted education to get to the mainstream." The Nation Deceived Web site has also received more than 2.2 million unique hits, 88,600 downloads of the report, 49,800 print copies have been distributed; and 42 keynote presentations have been given about this specific report. To provide perspective, Colangelo said, initially only 5,000 copies of the report were printed, and this has increased to 55,000 copies printed. The report was co-authored by Belin-Blank Center Associate Director Susan Assouline, and Miraca Gross, a professor of gifted education at the University of New South Wales in Australia. A gifted teacher/coordinator in Ohio shared the following sentiment in the open-ended response section of the online survey: "This report directly influenced the state of Ohio in mandating every public school district to adopt an acceleration policy ... . The state's Model Acceleration Policy included exact language from the report ... ." In the open-ended response section, a parent from Minnesota said: "I inhaled both volumes and was excited by what I read. 'A Nation Deceived' provided my husband and me with the tools and information to advocate for grade acceleration." Colangelo said that even beyond the survey results, the Belin-Blank Center has received "hundreds and hundreds" of phone calls, e-mails and testimonials. "People are saying this report has altered the lives of their children. Acceleration has given their children a new and realistic possibility to succeed," Colangelo said. Because of the ongoing outpouring of interest from parents, educators and administrators, one major impact was the creation of the Institute for Research and Policy on Acceleration (IRPA) at the UI Belin-Blank Center, Colangelo said. David Lohman serves as the IRPA research director. "The report unleashed considerable attention," Colangelo said. "And so we felt that people needed a place that they could look to for advice and consultation." IRPA's mission is to provide research on acceleration, act as a clearinghouse for information, serve as a resource for K-12 schools and administer research awards so that other scholars can pursue research on gifted education and acceleration. The Web site is http://www.accelerationinstitute.org "Three years ago, it would not have been possible," Colangelo said. "But now we have an institute that is dedicated solely to furthering research and providing information and consultation. This is an important offshoot from the original report that will continue to benefit countless parents, educators and gifted students." Just why do students drop out? Quitting is gradual process that starts in K-8, team at ASU says in recent study Thousands of Arizona high-school students drop out of school annually. Many of these children are too old to go to bed early and too young to drive, yet they abandon Arizona schools at the rate of about 28,400 each year. Faced with the overwhelming task of finding a job in an increasingly complex and challenging society, why would a student leave high school before graduating? This is contrary to earlier thought that dropping out was more of an impulsive act rather than a long-term process. "As complicated as most circumstances are for these children, leaving school before graduation is not an instantaneous event," said Hickman, an associate professor in the College of Teacher Education and Leadership at the West campus. "It is a gradual process of that should be tracked long before a child progresses into high school." Until recently, most dropout intervention programs typically target high-school students. "This line of thought assumes children exist in an 'educational vacuum' from kindergarten through eighth grade," Hickman said. "Consequently, educators may be overlooking important developmental trajectories exhibited by students prior to entering high school." As the former director of the Arizona Dropout Initiative, Hickman has conducted research into the factors affecting high-school attendance, including the impact of compulsory-attendance laws and the AIMS test. "We discovered that as early as kindergarten, differences exist between graduates and dropouts; namely, dropouts miss more school than graduates," Hickman said. "Dropouts miss an average of 124 days by eighth grade. Educators should begin developing strategies to improve student attendance from as early as kindergarten." Hickman adds that while certain behaviors are developed early, dropout characteristics are not necessarily set in stone. "Kids can succeed despite their early history," he said. "You can't just look at a few demographic variables and write these kids off. There are too many windows of opportunity for change." Reducing Arizona's dropout rates requires a profound rethinking of how to keep students in school. ASU's Rodel Community Scholars have developed innovative programs designed to make it easier for children to get from kindergarten to high-school graduation. Projects address everything from tracking struggling students to dropout intervention to increasing parental involvement to locating scholarships for high-school graduates. "While we may never get the state's dropout rate to zero, we can definitely do better," Hickman said. "In today's world, if you don't have a high-school diploma, you're setting yourself up for failure." Recommended Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers The Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE), Division of Early Childhood Development has released a state-recommended list of curriculum for infants and toddlers (birth to age 3) to provide guidance to child care centers, Head Start programs, and nursery schools in selecting curriculum that aligns with Guidelines for the Healthy Development and Care of Young Children. These guidelines serve as a framework for the learning and development for infants and toddlers. MSDE is recommending the curricula of two publishers, Pearson: The OUNCE Scale and Teaching Strategies: Creative Curriculum for Infants, Toddlers, and Twos. The OUNCE Scale enables caregivers and families to monitor a child's development. It has multiple approaches to collecting information, structured methods for keeping track of accomplishments, and includes family members in the assessment process. The Teaching Strategies curriculum is a comprehensive curriculum with a clear organizational structure and a particular focus on routines and experiences. It translates research and theory from the field of early childhood education into a practical, easy-to-understand approach to working with children and their families. The Early Childhood Curriculum Project, made up of representatives from the early care and education community, higher education, public and non-public schools, initially identified a state-recommended list of comprehensive curricula for 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds and also participated in the review process to determine recommendations. This project is meant to offer resources for the classroom that align with the state's prekindergarten and kindergarten curricular frameworks, also known as the Voluntary State Curriculum. Maryland joins a number of other states which have established a state-recommended list of curricula for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. This initiative is part of a three-year strategic plan, devised by MSDE to improve the early learning opportunities for young children before they start school. For more information about the Early Childhood Curriculum Project: http://www.marylandpublicschools.org/MSDE/divisions/child_care/preschool_curriculum/ New Solutions to School Readiness Challenge; Tangible Steps Toward Tomorrow Focuses on Parents, Teachers and Schools       Seeking a fresh approach and "out-of-the-box" ideas on school readiness, the W.K. Kellogg Foundation (WKKF) created a unique partnership. They engaged the brainpower of the design firm IDEO (http://www.ideo.com) to help them navigate a complex challenge: envision tangible steps toward transforming early education to ensure success for the next generation.       The IDEO team immersed itself in the world of early childhood education, conducting observations in classrooms and the homes of parents as well as connecting to experts within and outside of the WKKF network. They also drew on the ideas and extensive expertise of the directors involved in WKKF's SPARK (http://www.wkkf.org/spark) initiative. SPARK is designed to unite communities so that all children can be successful before and after they enter school.        The result is a set of solutions outlined in a new publication titled, Tangible Steps Toward Tomorrow; New Designs for Early Education, Ages 0-8. "The solutions focus around three areas: parents, teachers and schools. The rationale for this is that these are the three major influences on the child's education, and that they are also discrete and observable groupings, as opposed to broader social or political issues," the report reads.        If you would like to receive a free, printed version of the publication, go to: http://www.ccmc.org/spark/tangiblesteps.html . The report also is available on the W.K. Kellogg Foundation's Web site (http://www.wkkf.org/default.aspx?tabid=75&CID=168&NID=61&LanguageID=0) in formats optimized to print or view online. New Publication Helps Educate the Public and Preserve Education Resources in Native Communities Native education can be likened to a bureaucratic labyrinth, a complicated maze education advocates must learn to navigate to help students succeed.  The prizes in the middle of that maze are programs like Head Start, teacher training and grants for language restoration programs.  A new publication is designed to help guide educators, lawmakers and the public through the maze and hopefully avoid hitting brick walls. Native Education 101: Basic Facts about American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian Education is the result of a partnership between the National Education Association and the National Indian Education Association.  It gives a glimpse into problems faced by Natives in schools and explains the variety of laws and executive orders.  Educators can use the publication to highlight the needs of the Native community and react accordingly, and Native education advocates can use it to ward off attacks on resources. Full report: http://www.niea.org/sa/uploads/researchtopics/10.42.NativeEducation101.pdf Majority of Parents Believe Teachers Assign the Right Amount of Homework A new national study shows approximately eight out of 10 parents believe that their child’s teachers assign the right amount—or even too little—homework. The MetLife Survey of the American Teacher: The Homework Experience  sampled the opinions of parents, students and education leaders.  The findings were released today and include the following: The majority of those surveyed believe doing homework helps students learn more in school. · Teachers spend an average of 8.5 hours a week—or 15 percent of the time they spend on all weekly school-related responsibilities—on students’ homework. · Seventy-seven percent of students surveyed spend at least 30 minutes doing homework on a typical school day. · Forty-five percent of students spend at least one hour doing homework. Ninety percent of parents surveyed noted that helping their child with homework provides an opportunity for them to talk and spend time together. Complete report: http://www.ced.org/docs/report/report_metlife2008.pdf Voters Agree the Arts are Necessary for Students Competing in a Global Economy Poll shows why ‘No Child Left Behind Act’ needs to be amended A new national poll shows the majority of voters surveyed understand the importance of subjects like art and music in developing the imagination—which they believe is critical for children to acquire skills necessary to prosper in the future.   According to The Imagine Nation , a random phone survey of one thousand likely registered voters, 80 percent believe the arts develop the imagination and the critical, intellectual and personal skills students need to be successful in a global economy.   The survey, which was conducted in December 2007, also shows: - 85 percent agree the basics alone are not enough for a 21st century workforce without the skills and ability to be imaginative, creative and innovative 78 percent agree standardized testing does not encourage students to perform beyond the average and does not fully develop the imagination of students 87 percent believe science, engineering, technology and math—when integrated with the arts—provide students with a set of skills and values necessary to promote innovation. The new national survey of 1,000 likely voters, with a 3.1% margin of error, identifies that 30% of American voters are not only dissatisfied with public education's narrow focus on the "so-called" basics but that they also believe developing the imagination is a critical, but missing, ingredient to student success in 21st century schools and moving students beyond average. "These are surprising results that indicate a strong set of shared public values are not being detected by public leaders," said Celinda Lake, president of Lake Research Partners. "A significant number of voters believe that today's educational approaches are outdated, impair critical capacities of the imagination, and stifle teachers and students alike, blocking potential for innovation. These data show a large population we call the "imagine nation" are hungry for imagination in education and are going to take action accordingly—both in their local schools and at the voting booth, so that children are prepared for the world in which they will live." The majority of voters surveyed believe that it is extremely important to have good public schools nationwide, but there is also concern that public education in the United States is behind what is offered to students in other parts of the world and that we devote less attention to developing the imagination, creative skills and innovation than other nations. Among the key findings of the poll: · Almost nine in ten voters (89%) say that using the imagination is important to innovation and one’s success in a global knowledge-based economy and essential to success in the 21st Century. · 69% of American voters believe that, when compared to other nations, America devotes less attention to developing the imagination and innovation. · 88% of respondents indicated that an education in and through the arts is essential to cultivating the imagination. · 63% of voters strongly believe that building capacities of the imagination that lead to innovation is just as important as the "so called" basics for all students in the classroom and that an education in and through the arts helps to substantiate imaginative learning (91%) and should be considered a part of the basics. Lake's data suggest that a new "imagination constituency" will take action to ensure support for building the capacities of the imagination among students in public schools. In particular, · 56% percent of voters say they would be more likely to vote for a candidate who came out in support of more funding. · The electorate is even more willing to punish a candidate who votes to cut funding for building capacities of the imagination. 57% of voters say they would be much less likely to vote for such a candidate, and 36% percent of voters say they would be much less likely. Independent voters prove especially reactive to a candidate's decision to cut funding for building the capacities of the imagination. Richard J. Deasy, director of the Arts Education Partnership, offered, "What is very clear in recent public opinion polling and our own research is that people across the country want a much more engaging and broadened education for students. They want schools to help students set high standards for themselves, have ambition and aspirations for success, and develop the skills to fulfill their dreams and meet the demands of the 21st century world in which we live. And, the majority of voters (88%) believe that an education in and through the arts is essential to developing the capacities of the imagination that empower students to achieve these goals. We have never seen this clear or strong an indication of public support for arts education." "Voters react very strongly to the idea of combining the basics with the arts for the cultivation of the imagination. They also feel an education in the arts makes a major contribution to participating in a group or being a team player, learning to set goals and respecting multiple values and perspectives," said Lake. Results from this poll echo findings from current research and poll data. According to a national poll released in November 2007 by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, a majority of survey respondents indicated that schools need to do a better job of keeping up with changing educational needs. This mirrors earlier findings released by the Conference Board in 2006 citing that nearly three-fourths of business leaders surveyed ranked "creativity/innovation as among the top five applied skills projected to increase in importance for future graduates…" Other key findings of the poll include: · More than half of voters think that it is extremely or very critical to incorporate building capacities of the imagination that lead to innovation into core courses. · While almost two thirds of voters think that it is extremely or very important to have imagination and creative skills taught in school, most do not think that these skills are being taught very well. Correcting Poor Vision Can Help Preschoolers' Performance Preschoolers with poor vision have lower scores in developmental testing indicative of success in school performance, but those scores improve significantly within six weeks when the children are given prescription glasses, according to a new study by the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine. The study appears in the February issue of Archives of Ophthalmology. This study, directed by Stuart I. Brown, chair of Ophthalmology and director of the Shiley Eye Center at UC San Diego, followed 70 children ages 3-5 identified through the Shiley Eye Center’s mobile eye clinic, which serves low-income children who attend Head Start or San Diego Unified School district preschool programs. The service screens young children for vision problems and provides follow up services and prescription glasses for those diagnosed with vision impairment. “It has been theorized that when young children have early vision problems that are undiagnosed and uncorrected, their development and performance in school are impacted,” said Brown. “This study shows that children with vision impairment do perform below the norm in visual-motor coordination tests, and that they catch up quickly once they are given corrective lessons. This underscores the value of our County-wide program for screening and treating eye abnormalities in young children to ensure they have every opportunity to do well as they mature.” “Amazingly, this is the first controlled study of preschool children to show the cognitive disadvantage preschool children have when they are far sighted and/or have astigmatism, as well as to show the benefit of early intervention with glasses,” said study co-author Barbara Brody, M.P.H., director of the Center for Community Ophthalmology at the UC San Diego Shiley Eye Center, and clinical professor in the Departments of Ophthalmology and Community and Preventive Medicine. Of the children who participated in the study, 35 had normal vision and 35 were diagnosed with ametropia -- abnormal refractive eye conditions leading to poor vision, such as astigmatism. Before glasses were prescribed, all of the children took two standardized tests: the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R). These tests relate directly to future school performance. The vision-impaired children scored significantly lower on both tests, compared with the children with normal sight, with the results demonstrating reduced ability of the brain to coordinate the eyes with the hands. The vision impaired children were then provided with prescription glasses and monitored with the assistance of their families over six weeks to ensure that they wore their glasses consistently. All children were re-assessed using the same tests after six weeks. The most dramatic improvement was in the VMI scores of the children who had been diagnosed with vision problems, which were at the same level as the scores of the children with normal eyesight after six-weeks with corrective lenses. The WPPSI-R scores did not show the same dramatic improvement, but the researchers speculate that the test might not be as sensitive to changes in visual-motor integration skills tested by the VMI tool. The are following the children to test whether the WPPSI-R scores change further over time. Since low visual-motor skill scores correlate with lower academic achievements, the research team speculates that improved skills due to corrected vision might lead to improved cognitive and verbal performance. “These results from this relatively small sample of low-income preschoolers with ametropia suggested that early identification and correction should optimize cognitive development and learning, at least in the studied sample,” the researchers conclude. Close ties between parents and babies yield benefits for preschoolers Having close ties with parents is obviously good for preschoolers, but what does that really mean? It means that the preschoolers are better able to control their own behavior by showing patience, deliberation, restraint, and even maturity. That’s the finding of a new study conducted by researchers at the University of Iowa and published in the January/February 2008 issue of the journal Child Development. The researchers looked at 102 mostly white families—mothers, fathers, and babies—who had volunteered for the study from the time the children were 7 months old until they were almost 4 and a half years old. Repeated observations were carried out in the families’ homes and in a laboratory. In the first two years, the researchers observed how parents and children related to each other, particularly whether they were in sync, picked up on each other’s cues, communicated well, and enjoyed each other’s company. In short, they gauged whether the parents and children had developed a close, positive, reciprocal, cooperative, and mutually responsive relationship. When the children were 4 years and 4 months old, the researchers observed how the children responded when they were told not to do something by a parent when the parent then left the room. They also observed how the preschoolers did on tasks that called for self-regulation–patience, deliberation, restraint, and maturity of impulses–such as being asked to hold a small piece of candy in their mouths without eating it. The study found that children who had developed a close, positive, reciprocal, and mutually responsive relationship with their mothers in the first two years of their lives did much better in both respects—responding to their mothers’ requests not to do something and regulating their own behavior--than children who hadn’t developed such ties. The researchers also explored how mutually responsive relationships between mothers and children worked. When mothers and babies develop this closeness in the first two years, the study found, mothers don’t need to use forceful discipline later to get their children to do what they ask and refrain from other behaviors. And in turn, subtle control on the part of the mothers leads to better, more compliant, and more self-regulated behavior when the children are at preschool age. Some of these findings were similar for fathers and children. Mutually responsive, positive relationships between fathers and children in the first two years of life also were associated with children’s better performance in tasks that called for self-regulation when the children were 4 and a half. However, in contrast to mothers and children, the reasons for the father-child link were less clear. Relationships between fathers and children in general have been studied much less than those between mothers and children, and more research is needed to understand their dynamics. “Most parents know that when they interact with their infant and young toddler, they are laying important foundations for the child’s future development,” according to Grazyna Kochanska, Stuit Professor of Developmental Psychology at the University of Iowa and the lead author of the study. “Now we have a better understanding of what that really means. Your investment in building a mutually responsive, positive, close relationship early on will generate considerable payoff several years later.” Poor neighborhoods' influence on parents may raise preschool children's risk of problems Children who live in poor neighborhoods may be at increased risk of verbal and behavioral problems. A new study suggests that for some of their parents, living in poor neighborhoods is associated with poorer mental health, poorer family relations, and less consistent and more punitive parenting. The study aimed to determine the relationships between neighborhood characteristics and parenting, and between parenting and children’s preschool performance. Conducted by researchers at the University of Ottawa, Johns Hopkins University, the University of British Columbia, and Statistics Canada, the study appears in the January/February 2008 issue of Child Development. “This study does not show that poverty leads to bad parenting, which in turn leads to poor outcomes in children,” according to Dafna E. Kohen, adjunct professor in the Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine at the University of Ottawa, senior research analyst at Statistics Canada, and the study’s lead author. “Rather, this study shows that in neighborhoods where there is socioeconomic disadvantage, children’s verbal and behavioral outcomes are influenced by poor parental mental health and parenting behaviors.” Children’s neighborhoods play an important role in their development, yet little is known about how the characteristics of those neighborhoods affect young children. Existing research suggests that children who live in poor neighborhoods are at greater risk of problems when entering school and of behavioral and emotional difficulties. This study goes beyond the existing evidence to explore characteristics of neighborhoods and how those characteristics relate to the well-being of parents and children. The study examined 3,528 preschoolers from a nationally representative sample of Canadian children. Specifically, the researchers looked at characteristics such as neighborhood cohesion, or the sense of trust among neighbors, and the sense of community organization (whether or not residents can get together to address community issues or problems, for example). They also looked at family factors such as mothers’ mental health and how families function, and parenting behaviors such as reading and discipline. And they measured the children’s verbal ability and assessed how their parents rated their children’s behavior. The researchers found that there is less neighborhood cohesion or mutual trust in poor neighborhoods, which, in turn, can be associated with poorer mental health in parents and greater family dysfunction. Furthermore, these factors are associated with less consistent and more punitive parenting, the study found. Punitive parenting is associated with a greater incidence of behavior problems in children. Families living in poor neighborhoods also are less likely to read to their children at home, and children who are not read to by their parents have lower scores on tests of verbal ability. “Findings from this study demonstrate that the impact of living in a disadvantaged neighborhood exerts its influence through both neighborhood and family mechanisms,” according to Kohen. “Children benefit from parents who are physically and emotionally healthy and live in safe neighborhoods where they trust their neighbors. Among the implications of these findings are community-based initiatives to promote literacy activities and parenting behaviors for the healthy development of children and their families.” Good parenting helps difficult infants perform as well or better in first grade than peers Some infants are called difficult, challenging parents because they cry frequently, are very active, and may not adapt well to new situations or people. Other infants are described as easy, full of smiles, adaptable, and not very active. Conventional wisdom suggests that easy babies will do better in first grade than difficult ones. The results of a new study tell us otherwise, with the key being the type of parenting the children receive. The study, which followed infants from birth to first grade, found that first graders who were difficult as infants and whose mothers provided excellent parenting had as good or better grades, social skills, and relationships with teachers and peers as first graders who were less difficult as infants and had excellent parenting from their mothers. “The key to first-grade adjustment for both difficult and easy infants was good parenting,” said Anne Dopkins Stright, associate professor of human development at Indiana University and the study’s lead author. The study was conducted by researchers at Indiana University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It is published in the January/February 2008 issue of the journal Child Development. The researchers followed children taking part in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care from birth to first grade. The 1,364 families came from 10 geographic areas in the United States and included ethnic minorities (24 percent) and single mothers (14 percent). When the children were six months old, their mothers filled out a questionnaire on their babies’ temperament. Children who did not respond well to new situations and people, were very active, had intense emotions, cried a lot, and did not adapt well were classified as having difficult temperaments. The researchers observed mothers’ parenting (specifically, mothers’ warmth and age-appropriate control) six times from infancy to first grade. When the children reached first grade, their teachers filled out questionnaires on the children’s adjustment to school, including their academic competence; social skills such as cooperation, assertion, and self control; and relationships with teachers and peers. The results of the study support the notion that infants may vary in the degree to which their nervous systems are sensitive to input from their surrounding environment, with more sensitive infants more likely to have difficulties, according to the researchers. Because of their more sensitive nervous systems, infants who have more difficult temperaments may be more likely to be irritable and cry more frequently. But these infants also may be more positively affected by excellent parenting and more harmed by poor parenting. And for this reason, the quality of the parenting they receive may mean more for these children’s development than for other children. “This study may have important implications for early intervention, in that early identification of difficult temperament during infancy may help to more effectively plan and implement interventions,” according to Stright. “For example, physicians can identify parents who perceive their children as temperamentally difficult in infancy and refer these parents for supportive services. “The findings also provide support for parents of difficult infants. These infants may exhaust and frustrate their parents, but with high-quality parenting, these infants may become the most academically competent and socially skilled students in the first grade, compared to infants who are easier to parent.” Genes and environment interact in first graders to predict physical but not social aggression Physical aggression in children comes from their genes and the environment in which they grow up. Social aggression, such as spreading rumors or ignoring other children, has less to do with genetic factors and more with environmental factors. One important environmental influence on children is friends. But while past studies have shown an association between physically aggressive friends and increased physical aggression in children and teens, few studies have looked at how socially aggressive friends affect children’s social aggression, nor have they considered possible gene-environment transactions in these behaviors. A new study by researchers at the University of Quebec at Montreal, Laval University, Concordia University, and the University of Montreal sought to determine whether the interaction between nature and nurture, that is, between children’s genetic disposition to aggression and friends’ aggression (social or physical), could help explain differences in children’s own aggression. The study appears in the January/February 2008 issue of Child Development. The researchers assessed approximately 400 pairs of 7-year-old twins, each of whom was asked to list up to three friends in their classroom. Teachers and peers evaluated the twins’ and their friends’ levels of social and physical aggression. The researchers found that friends’ physical aggression interacts with genetic liability to predict children’s own physical aggression. Specifically, the genetic disposition to physical aggression is more likely to express itself when children are exposed to physically aggressive friends. No gene-environment interaction was found with respect to children’s social aggression. Instead, friends’ social aggression seems to be directly associated with children’s own social aggression, independent of children’s genetic disposition to this behavior. The results also revealed that the effect of friends’ aggression on children’s aggression only seems to occur in the context of the same type of aggression. In other words, friends’ physical aggression predicts children’s physical but not their social aggression, whereas friends’ social aggression predicts children’s social but not their physical aggression. TV Wrestling Linked to Fighting, Risky Behavior in Teens Adolescents who watch professional wrestling on television are more likely to be involved in violence, sex without birth control, and other risky behaviors, reports a study in the February Southern Medical Journal, official journal of the Southern Medical Association. The more often young people watch wrestling, the higher their rates of risky behaviors, according to the new report. Although no cause-and-effect relationship can be implied, "[W]e can only conclude that as the frequency of watching wrestling increases or decreases, the health risk behavior associated with it also changes," write Robert H. DuRant, Ph.D., and colleagues of Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, N.C. The study was based on a telephone survey of 2,300 young people, aged 16 to 20, across the United States. Twenty-two percent of males and fourteen percent of females said they had watched professional wrestling on television over the past two weeks. The frequency of watching professional wrestling was related to increased rates of several violent and risky behaviors, after adjustment for other factors. For example, survey respondents who said they had tried to hurt someone with a weapon watched 67 percent more wrestling than those who had not tried to hurt anyone. Those who had engaged in sex without birth control watched wrestling 42 percent more frequently than those who used birth control. Smokers watched wrestling 31 percent more often than nonsmokers. For each one additional time watching wrestling over the past two weeks, the rates of violent/risky behaviors—including having sex without birth control, fighting with a girlfriend or boyfriend, or threatening or harming someone with a weapon—increased by up to nineteen percent. Thus a youth who watched wrestling more than six times was more than twice as likely to have engaged in any of these behaviors. Youths with higher family incomes watched more wrestling than those with lower incomes. Surprisingly, respondents who drank alcohol watched wrestling less often than those who did not drink. Exposure to violence on movies, television, and video games is thought to contribute to aggressive and violent behavior by young people. Few studies have looked at the possible effects of watching professional wrestling—a type of violent entertainment that is very popular among young viewers. "Youth who watch wrestling are exposed to a barrage of images of severe violence without the expected negative consequences, the degrading of women, sexuality connected with violence, and extreme verbal intimidation and abuse between wrestlers and their female escorts and/or women wrestlers," the researchers write. Consistent with a previous smaller study by the same research group, the watching televised wrestling is associated with increased rates of some violent and risky behaviors among young people. "Reducing children's and adolescents' exposure to violence from electronic media sources should be an important component of any violence-prevention strategy," Dr. DuRant and colleagues conclude. They urge parents to monitor and control what their children watch on TV. They also believe that doctors and other health care professional should educate parents about the influence of exposure to violence from media sources—specifically on children's "normative expectations" concerning behavior in real-life situations such as dating. A Dangerous Transition: High School to the First Year of College Increases in young women's drinking during the transition from high school through the first year of college can have dangerous physical, sexual and psychological implications, according to a report out of the University at Buffalo's Research Institute on Addictions. The good news is that during the first year of college, when many young women increase their drinking, the majority (78 percent) of the 870 incoming freshmen women who participated in the study did not experience any victimization. The bad news, however, is that among the 22 percent of women who were victimized, 13 percent experienced severe physical victimization and 38 percent experienced severe sexual victimization. The research results were published in the January 2008 issue of the prestigious Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. "This is the first study that we know of that has compared risk for physical and sexual assault among college women based on changes in drinking during this transition period," said Kathleen A. Parks, Ph.D., principal investigator on the study. "Clearly, abstaining from drinking is a protective measure. However, young college women should be aware that becoming a new drinker or increasing one's drinking during this transition increases the likelihood of victimization." The study showed that among women who drank alcohol during the first year of college, rates of physical and sexual victimization were substantially higher compared to women who did not drink. In addition, the odds of first-year college sexual victimization significantly increased with each pre-college psychological symptom (i.e., anxiety, depression) and each pre-college sexual partner a woman reported. Interestingly, researchers found that the changes in drinking patterns during the high-school-to-college transition influenced risk for physical and sexual victimization in different ways. About one fourth (27 percent) of the women reported that they abstained from drinking in the year prior to entering college. During the first year of college, only 12 percent continued to be abstainers. Among these abstainers, less than two percent reported physical victimization and seven percent reported sexual victimization. Compare this with drinkers, seven percent of whom reported physical victimization and 19 percent, sexual victimization. Being a new drinker during the first year of college (15 percent of the women) increased the likelihood of physical, but not sexual, victimization. The researchers speculated that new drinkers' social and physical inexperience or lack of tolerance for alcohol and its effects may increase women's impairment when drinking and subsequently, their vulnerability to potential perpetrators or dangerous situations. Perhaps, the physically disinhibiting effects of alcohol for new drinkers may cause them to be more reactive, possibly verbally aggressive, or more likely to call attention to themselves, thereby putting themselves at risk for physical aggression in social drinking situations. Continuing drinkers were defined as those who drank the year prior to college and during the first year of college. Of these women, more than half (57 percent) increased their drinking during the first year at college. They drank considerably more than new drinkers on multiple measures of alcohol consumption, including heavy episodic drinking -- four or more drinks per occasion -- and were at greater risk for sexual victimization. Of the continuing drinkers, 26 percent reported decreasing their drinking and 16 percent reported not changing their level of weekly drinking. These findings suggest that a later onset of drinking may be protective against patterns of heavy episodic drinking and some of the associated negative consequences. Incidents of sexual victimization were predicted by different factors than incidents of physical victimization. According to Parks, "The significant predictors of sexual victimization were psychological symptoms during the first year at college, number of consensual sexual partners and increased drinking. Women who have more consensual sexual partners are more likely to encounter a sexually aggressive individual and are more likely to experience sexual victimization. At the same time, women who increased their drinking are more likely to be behaviorally and cognitively impaired and less likely to recognize, avoid or defend against sexual aggression. " Women who increased their drinking experienced nearly five negative alcohol-related problems during the first year at college. Those problems included a variety of consequences such as inability to do homework or study for a test, passing out or fainting suddenly, engaging in consensual sexual activity that was regretted afterward, physical assault, sexual assault, theft or robbery. Parks encourages development of prevention programs that emphasize the risks of drinking and heavy drinking in social situations for women. Women with a history of drinking before entering college are at greatest risk for escalating their drinking and experiencing more negative consequences and sexual assault. Parents Still Influence College Kids' Risky Behavior New research shows that parents influence their child’s likelihood of involvement with drugs, alcohol and risky sexual activity even after their child leaves for college. In an upcoming issue of the Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Brigham Young University family scientist Laura Walker’s study found that parents’ knowledge or awareness of what’s going on in their child’s life at college is associated with fewer risky behaviors. Specifically, students who said their fathers were in the loop had a lower likelihood of doing drugs or engaging in risky sexual behaviors. When mothers were in the know, students were less likely to drink alcohol. The protective effect of mothers’ awareness was more pronounced when the students also felt close to their mom. Under those circumstances, the researchers found that students were less likely to be involved in any of the three risk behavior categories studied: drugs, alcohol and risky sexual activity. “For parents, the fact that closeness plays a strong role is a message to not be overbearing,” Walker said. “Having a close relationship promotes the child wanting to open up and share what’s going on rather than the parent having to intrusively solicit the information from the child.” Walker and her colleagues agree that delaying adulthood results in an extension of parents’ period of service to their children. The study’s findings show that the relationships between parents and children continue to be important during the transition to adulthood. The study involved 200 undergraduate students ages 18 to 25 from two mid-Atlantic colleges, a Midwestern university and a West Coast university. The title of the paper is “The Role of Perceived Parental Knowledge on Emerging Adults’ Risk Behaviors.” Professor Larry Nelson, also from BYU’s School of Family Life, is a co-author on the study. Related study: Delaying adulthood to find identity has bright side Similar research by Walker and her colleagues finds that delaying the transition to adulthood involves experimentation of a positive nature, indicating this life stage is not simply a period of risk-taking and delinquency. In an upcoming issue of the Journal of Adolescence, Walker compared the altruism and positive values of two types of emerging adults: those who were already committed to an identity and those still in the process of exploring their identity. The research found the two groups had few differences when it came to outward behaviors like helping other people and inward personal values such as honesty, kindness and fairness. “The assumption too often is that delaying adulthood is automatically a negative thing, dominated by exploration with risky drinking, drug use, and sex,” Walker said. “However, these findings suggest that young people are also exploring positive behaviors and participate in society to the same degree as those who have already established their identity.” The study involved 491 students ages 18 to 25 from two private colleges in the mid-Atlantic, two public universities in the Midwest, and a public university on the West Coast. Each student took a questionnaire about exploration and commitment to an identity. Forty-three percent scored high on commitment to an identity. Another 23 percent scored low on commitment but high on identity exploration. The researchers compared these two groups and found few differences when it came to helping other people, ideas of fairness and honesty and the role of faith in their lives. The title of the paper is “Looking on the Bright Side: The Role of Identity Status and Gender on Positive Orientations during Emerging Adulthood.” College Students’ Predictable Drinking Habits Can Lead to Prevention The predictability of college students’ drinking could open a door to prevention, Scott Walters, Ph.D., a researcher at The University of Texas School of Public Health, recently told members of the American Public Health Association (APHA) at the group’s 135th annual meeting. Walters, assistant professor of health promotion and behavioral sciences at the UT School of Public Health Dallas Regional Campus, based his symposium presentation on a paper he co-authored that was published in the November 2007 issue of Addictive Behaviors. Building on earlier studies that have shown college students tend to binge drink around specific events, the paper, “Event-specific prevention: Addressing college student drinking during known windows of risk,” reviewed existing literature about prevention efforts. Critical events include the beginning of the school year, spring break, sporting events, homecoming, 21st birthday celebrations and graduation—the kind of events that Walters says are likely to be seen by students as a “time-out” from normal drinking. Strategies include publicizing the signs of alcohol poisoning and providing an overview of campus and community alcohol policies during student orientation. The authors also encourage faculty to begin assignments and quizzes early in the semester and schedule classes on Fridays. Homecoming strategies include making students aware of social host liability, encouraging designated drivers, issuing wristbands for those over 21 who wish to drink and segregating drinking and non-drinking areas to minimize the availability of alcohol to underage students. “The vast majority of college drinking interventions are targeted to lower overall rates, but don’t address the episodic drinker,” Walters said. “We looked at all the interventions and made some practical recommendations around specific events.” Walters said binge drinking places students at risk for carrying out or being the victim of physical or sexual assault. Alcohol also plays a role in risky sexual behavior including unprotected sex and sex with multiple partners. Physical effects range from hangovers to death from alcohol poisoning. Alcohol can cause changes in the structure and function of the developing brain, a critical problem since the brain continues to develop into the mid-‘20s, he told APHA members in his presentation. Of the 14,000 college students who die each year from alcohol-related causes, 5,000 of them are under the age of 21. Last March, Acting Surgeon General Kenneth Moritsugu, M.D., issued a national call to action on underage drinking. Walters and his co-authors examined protective behavior use among heavy-drinking college students in another paper in the November 2007 issue of Addictive Behaviors. The study, “Correlates of protective behavior utilization among heavy-drinking college students,” found that students who reported the heaviest drinking were less likely to use protective behaviors. Males and students with a perceived history of parental alcohol abuse were also less likely to use protective behaviors. Women in the study reported their behaviors are “knowing where your drink has been at all times” and “going home with a friend.” For men, the two major strategies are, “knowing where your drink has been at all times” and “using a designated driver.” The authors suggest marketing other strategies, such as alternating alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, having a friend let a student know when they’ve had enough, setting a drinking limit and avoiding competitive drinking practices. They also recommend programs that focus on identifying and intervening with students who have a family history of alcohol abuse. “What this study suggests is that college students may be able to reduce their risk for problems, even without making changes in the amount they are drinking,” Walters said. “A lot of it is in how students are drinking.” School Choice Impact in Milwaukee Improperly Studied, Reports Brown University Scholar Research Lacks Requisite Information on Milwaukee Parents Serious research flaws underlie the findings of a high-profile study released this past fall on the impact of Milwaukee’s school choice programs, according to education researcher Martin R. West of Brown University. The October 2007 study, conducted by the Wisconsin Policy Research Institute (WPRI), claims that most parents in Milwaukee do not choose their child’s school and that, if they do, they don't choose it with educational goals in mind. As a result, there is no way that school choice can drive true reform in the Milwaukee public schools. However, says West, the author of the WPRI study failed to contact or talk with any parent in Milwaukee. “The study contains no direct information about the actual behavior of Milwaukee parents whatsoever,” he says. “The findings are wholly based on information gathered from a national sample of parents, not from anyone in Milwaukee.” Therefore the study assumes that the behavior of Milwaukee parents is identical to that of parents of similar demographic background nationwide, despite the fact that Milwaukee has the most extensive system of school choice in the nation. As of 2005, more than one-third of the city’s parents had chosen to (1) enroll their child in a charter school, (2) use a voucher to go to a private school, or (3) seek a place in a suburban public school. All other students in Milwaukee can choose to attend any of the city’s traditional public schools. Each winter, notes West, the Milwaukee public schools ask parents to list up to three schools they want their child to attend the following fall, with the vast majority receiving their first choice. Rather than use this relevant and readily available data, the study relied on information from the U.S. Department of Education’s 2003 National Household Education Survey to determine the relationship between four parental characteristics (ethnic background, educational attainment, whether both parents are in the home, and mother’s employment status) and whether the parent is choosing a child’s school. West notes that, although the study claims that those characteristics are highly correlated with the likelihood that a parent will choose a school, it presents no direct evidence to support the point. Instead, it simply notes that another U.S. Department of Education study, based on a different data set, shows that these variables are “particularly influential determinants of parental involvement” without showing their usefulness in predicting the likelihood of exercising school choice in the study’s data set. The study then uses census data to estimate the distribution of Milwaukee parents on each of the four characteristics. Finally, it uses the relationship between these characteristics and choice activity in the national population to estimate how much choice is being exercised in Milwaukee. The validity of these results, explains West, depends on the ability of the four characteristics to reliably predict a U.S. parent’s likelihood of choosing a school. And it assumes that Milwaukee parents do exactly what parents everywhere else in the country are doing, despite the city’s unique public education options. “The failure to examine any data from the Milwaukee school district ultimately leaves the findings entirely unsupported,” says West. West’s review of Fixing the Milwaukee Public Schools: The Limits of Parent-Driven Reform appears in the forthcoming issue of Education Next (spring 2008). It is available online now at www.EducationNext.org. Educating Arizona National Education Experts Provide Candid Review of Arizona's Public Education System Arizona Community Foundation has completed its first step in fulfilling a commitment to supporting and improving Arizona's public schools by providing a candid, comprehensive and objective assessment of the entire system. The assessment, a report entitled "Educating Arizona," is the result of a year and half's worth of analysis by local and nationally-respected experts in education who examined the state's performance and system conditions starting with early care and education, to high school and through the transition to college. Data will also be shared from a companion report focusing an early care and education, called "Building Our Foundation." Excerpts from the Executive Summary: In Arizona, about 85 percent of high-growth, high-wage jobs between now and 2013 will require at least a two-year college degree. These are the kinds of prosperity-creating jobs the state wants to attract and retain. Fewer than 2 percent of these jobs will be open to applicants who do not have at least a high school diploma. Compare these new economic realities with Arizona’s educational reality. On too many academic measures, we are in the bottom tier of states, while the United States itself is falling behind many other nations. Just as significant, Arizona compares unfavorably on most system indicators that explain the conditions under which our children, especially low-income children, are being taught: inadequate early childhood learning opportunities; difficult conditions for teaching and leadership, especially in certain locales; standards that fall short of what business and university leaders say are required for success; and a funding system that spends less per student than 48 other states. Arizona’s Student Performance and System Conditions at a Glance Student Performance Elementary School Reading Based on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 24 percent of our 4th-graders are “proficient” in reading, which is in the bottom tier of states (46th). Although grade 4 Arizona Instrument to Measure Standards (AIMS) scores have moved in the right direction, only 67 percent of students meet or exceed reading standards, and our minority and English language learners (ELL) remain 20 to 30 percentage points behind the state averages. Nearly 6 in 10 low-income students are “below basic” on NAEP. Elementary School Math Thirty-one percent of our 4th grade students are “proficient” on the NAEP math test, placing us 43rd nationally. More than three quarters of our 4th-graders — 76 percent — meet or exceed standards based on the AIMS tests. Again, gaps among student groups are large on both tests. On NAEP, 4 in 10 low-income students score “below basic.” Middle School Reading Twenty-four percent of our 8th-graders are “proficient” in reading on NAEP (42nd nationally). On the grade 8 AIMS reading tests, 65 percent of all students meet state standards. As in elementary school, gaps among student groups often exceed 20 percentage points. Half or more of Hispanic, Native American and low-income students score “below basic” on the NAEP. More than 8 in 10 ELL students score “below basic.” Middle School Math Although 26 percent of our students are “proficient” on the NAEP math test in grade 8 (38th nationally), our students are closer to the national average (31 percent proficient) than in any other grade and subject. On the AIMS grade 8 math test, 62 percent of students meet state standards. As in other grades and subjects, gaps are large. High School Only about 7 in 10 of Arizona’s students graduate from high school in four years, and disproportionately fewer minority students do so, which is about average among U.S. states. Only 60–70 percent initially pass the AIMS tests required to graduate. Fewer than half of graduates are eligible for college admission, only about one-third go on to college, and high percentages of college freshmen must enroll in low-level courses — all similar to national averages. Although scores on college entrance and Advanced Placement tests are comparatively high, participation is much lower than national averages. System Conditions Standards and Accountability High expectations are at the heart of a quality state education system. Generally, we receive high grades for our academic content standards, but graduation requirements are low and not aligned to college or work standards. Passing scores on the state tests were lowered in 2005, so our accountability system is based on student expectations that are not particularly high compared to other states’ tests. Working toward a P–20 system has potential. Teaching Quality To help students achieve high standards, carefully constructed curricula must be taught by highly effective teachers. The National Center on Teaching Quality gives Arizona an “unsatisfactory” grade overall, with a mix of Cs and Ds and an F for preparing special education teachers. Arizona has comparatively high percentages of teachers on waivers and teachers teaching out of their field. Shortages are particularly acute in urban and rural areas and on or near reservations. Teacher preparation programs could be more rigorous and better reflect our changing population’s learning needs. Professional development is inadequately supported, and we have low salaries and many novice teachers. Leadership and Governance Research also shows that teachers cannot do a highly effective job unless they work with strong leadership, which requires outstanding principals and administrators. We need a better understanding of Arizona’s conditions for school leadership. Currently there are projects under way but no strategic statewide plan. Our governing structures are complex and could affect leaders’ ability to create excellent schooling conditions. School Choice While the standards are constant, a one-size-fits-all approach won’t work for all students or families, so multiple choices are necessary to spur innovation within the system. Our choices are plentiful; we are a national leader in the percentage of students attending charter schools. However, there are persistent concerns about program quality and the adequacy of program oversight. Public School Finance Funding — as long as it is spent efficiently — is critical to attracting and retaining great teachers and leaders, offering sufficient choices and providing the multiple instructional supports students need to reach the standards. Only two states spend less annually per pupil on school operations than Arizona — about $2,500 less than the national average. Full report: http://www.educatingarizona.org/report/ Building Our Foundation: http://www.educatingarizona.org/report/building-our-foundation REPORT TO THE CITIZENS OF THE ROOSEVELT SCHOOL DISTRICT By Tom Horne State Superintendent of Public Instruction State of Arizona Department of Education I. School and District Leadership in Crisis Political ties among Board members and mid-level management, including principals, leave the Superintendent unable to discipline or provide leadership. The result is a pilotless airplane filled with children, flying in the dark and surrounded by mountains. Lack of leadership at the top produces poor leadership at all levels, which results in poor performance by the District. At both the school and district level, many Roosevelt administrative personnel are inexperienced in their positions and have minimal depth of knowledge or ability to describe the purpose of an instructional strategy, resource or assessment, and how they will ultimately affect student achievement. A district focus group indicated there is widespread apathy among the administrators and a lack of and need for strong instructional leadership at many of the schools and the district level. The RSD Governing Board is a consistent topic of conversation from all stakeholder interviews and focus groups at the district and school levels. The overwhelming consensus is that the board’s harmful interference in district operations is the number one reason nothing gets done or done well in the district. District staff, community members and parents state that the board’s decisions are based on race, personal favors or personal vendettas and that many district staff are afraid of the board’s retaliation. The negativity and personal attacks have caused the district irreparable harm and it will be a long time before it can recover. All stakeholders shared that drastic action must be taken including removal of the Board’s authority, so the district would have a true opportunity to improve. Here are some specific examples: II. District Unable to Focus on Improving Instruction Despite an Abundance of Assistance Instruction fails to improve in Roosevelt School District although it receives more technical assistance and support from ADE than any other district in the state—indeed a significant percentage of overall ADE resources. The district has failed to support ADE’s Professional Development Learning Academy causing the state to withdraw the district from the program. For the 2006-07 school year, the district failed to take full advantage of Best Practices waivers that would have allowed over 70 staff at the six underperforming schools to attend free of charge. The district sent only 8 staff (out of 70 permitted) to the Best Practices Academies, which covered topics that would have been most beneficial to the underperforming schools. The district has received substantial support from all levels within the ADE from School Improvement and Intervention; Title I; Title II-Highly Qualified; Title III-English Language Learners; Title IV-Safe and Drug Free Schools; 21st Century Learning Communities; Exceptional Student Services; Early Childhood Education; and Educational Technology. In the past three years, the district has received almost $90 million dollars in state and federal assistance. This increases its per pupil funding from the statewide average of about $6000 to about $8000 for Roosevelt, yet parents, teachers and students report not enough books and classroom materials for students; consistent classroom management and student discipline issues; inferior and unhealthy school environments; excessive use/misuse of outside consultants to complete work normally done at the school or district level and an inability to attract and retain Highly Qualified teachers. III. Reading First: 8 of the 9 Roosevelt District RF schools were terminated for cause and the district lost $1 million of assistance over the last two years. Reading First provides support to schools to implement proven methods of early reading instruction in classrooms. By applying the best and most rigorous scientifically-based reading research, this important initiative is aimed ensuring that all children learn to read well by the end of third grade. 8 of the 9 Roosevelt School District RF schools were terminated for cause and the district lost $1 million of assistance it could have received from this program for the following reasons: • Core reading program was not implemented with fidelity due to lack of direction, motivation and vision in principal’s leadership. Teachers were not held accountable to teach with purpose and intention. • Serious lack of leadership left reading intervention systems in disarray. • Campuses in general lacked a sense of unity among staff. Adult issues tend to consume their conversations, and not much focused purposeful attention was given to the issues surrounding effective instruction. • Failure to provide timely Budget amendments and align resources with allowable Reading First activities. IV. Poor cash controls leave student monies susceptible to loss, theft or misuse A compliance review report by the Auditor General on October 31, 2006, informed Roosevelt Elementary School District No. 66, of its noncompliance with the Uniform System of Financial Records (USFR). These deficiencies included: • The District lacked accountability over its capital assets as its capital assets and stewardship lists were incomplete and inaccurate, and some assets could not be located on the District’s premises. • The District may not have received the appropriate amount of funding since the District did not report membership and absences correctly. • The District’s FY 2006 audit reports indicated that the District had allowed unlimited and unrecorded charge sales for student lunches, resulting in the loss of approximately $200,000 of FY 2006 food service revenue. The District’s poor cash controls left student monies susceptible to loss, theft, or misuse. Numerous bank accounts were opened by district employees under the District’s taxpayer identification number without Governing Board authorization. The District was given 90 days to implement the recommendations in the report regarding these deficiencies prior to a status review of the District’s internal controls as of May 3, 2007. Based on the status review, it was determined in a report dated November 2, 2007 that Roosevelt still has not complied with the USFR. The Office of the Auditor General made a request to the Arizona State Board of Education to take appropriate action as prescribed by Arizona Revised Statutes ¤15-272, to withhold some school funding until the district comes into compliance. V. High Levels of Violence Persist in District The Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act (SDFSCA) is a national effort to ensure academic success for all students. The SDFSCA State Grants program authorizes a variety of activities designed to prevent school violence and youth drug use, and to help schools and communities create safe, disciplined, and drug-free environments that support student academic achievement. Despite the ADE recommendation to the district to allocate some funds to a district position to oversee the program, the district continues to contract services to outside resources. The district has poor district oversight of the program and unmet requirements for administrator training. VI. Observations by WestEd WestEd is a federally funded regional education laboratory. Roosevelt contracted with WestEd to assist them with District improvement during the 2006 – 2007 school year. After working closely with Roosevelt, WestEd concluded: “Despite the continued failure of the district to meet student achievement targets, the district was not consistently focused on improving student achievement.” VII. Bottom Line Roosevelt has seven schools that are underperforming and four schools that are failing. This is predictable, based on the systemic dysfunction noted by numerous people working closely with Roosevelt to help the district, and testified to at school and community meetings and focus groups. When Research Matters How Scholarship Influences Education Policy Edited by Frederick M. Hess Frederick M. Hess is resident scholar and director of Education Policy Studies at the American Enterprise Institute. He is also executive editor of Education Next. When Research Matters considers the complex and crucially important relationship between education research and policy. In examining how and under what conditions research affects education policy, the book focuses on a number of critical issues: the history of the federal role in education policy; the evolving nature of educational policy research; the role of research in debates about reading, NCLB, and “out-of-field” teaching; how research affects policy by shaping public opinion, judicial rulings, and the decisions of district and school leaders; and the incentives that help explain the behavior of researchers and policymakers. “When Research Matters asks the questions that are rarely asked about the difficult road from research to policy. For the classroom educator, the unevenness of the road from research to policy makes the next leg of the journey—from policy to practice—that much more difficult. This volume gives us all a deeper understanding of the reasons research is often poorly translated into practice.” —Pascal D. Forgione Jr., Superintendent of Schools, Austin, Texas Order the book here: http://www.hepg.org/hep/Book/79 School Finance Redesign Project The School Finance Redesign Project (SFRP) encompasses research, policy analysis, and public engagement activities that examine how K-12 finance can be redesigned to better support student performance. SFRP addresses the question, "How can resources help schools achieve the higher levels of student performance that state and national education standards now demand?" To accomplish this purpose, the project is studying governmental policies, finance structures, and professional practices; it is assessing policy options for finance redesign; and it is developing decision making tools for policy makers and educators. See report on project work to date, which focuses on North Carolina, Ohio, Texas, and Washington state: http://www.schoolfinanceredesign.org/pub/workingpapers.shtml Report on Average E-rate Applicant The E-rate program, officially known as Universal Service Funding for Schools and Libraries, was created as the result of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. The Federal Communications Commission created the E-rate program to help schools and libraries, especially those in economically disadvantaged and rural areas, obtain telecommunications services such as phone service and access to the Internet. Before the E-rate program, only three percent of the nation's classrooms were connected to the Internet. Today, more than 95 percent of classrooms have Internet access, thanks to the funding schools and districts receive from the E-rate program every year. For the 2007 E-rate Funding Year, nearly 23,000 applicants submitted $3.8 billion in funding requests. Funds For Learning, an E-rate funding compliance services firm, has released a report titled, “The Average E-rate Applicant.” In this report, Funds For Learning created a profile of an average E-rate applicant based on the 23,000 funding requests received for the 2007 Funding Year. Full report: http://www.cblohm.com/news/FFL/FFL_080124/FFL_Avg_E-rateApplicant_24Jan08.pdf